TOEFL® Research Reports

These reports present the findings of research studies specific to the TOEFL® test and the testing program, carried out in consultation with the TOEFL Committee of Examiners.

Reports with designations that begin "TOEFLiBT" cover research conducted in support of the TOEFL iBT® test. Reports are listed in reverse order of publication:

• The Relationship Between Raters' Prior Language Study and the Evaluation of Foreign Language Speech Samples
  By P. Winke, S. Gass, & C. Myford (2011)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-16
• Validation of Automated Scores of TOEFL iBT® Tasks Against Nontest Indicators of Writing Ability
  By S. C. Weigle (2011)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-15
• The Effectiveness of Feedback for L1-English and L2-Writing Development: A Meta-Analysis
  By D. Biber, T. Nekrasova, & B. Horn (2011)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-14
• Test Takers' Attitudes About the TOEFL iBT™
  By L. J. Stricker & Y. Attali (2010)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-13
• How Do Raters From India Perform in Scoring the TOEFL iBT™ Speaking Section and What Kind of Training Helps?
  By X. Xi & P. Mollaun (2009)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-11
• The Speaking Section of the TOEFL iBT™ (SSTiBT): Test-Takers’ Reported Strategic Behaviors
  By M. Swain, L.-S. Huang, K. Barkaoui, L. Brooks, & S. Lapkin (2009)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-10
• Does Content Knowledge Affect TOEFL iBT™ Reading Performance? A Confirmatory Approach to Differential Item Functioning
  By O. L. Liu, M. Schedl, J. Malloy, & N. Kong (2009)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-09
• Criterion-Related Validity of the TOEFL® iBT Listening Section
  By Y. Sawaki & S. Nissan (2009)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-08
• Factor Structure of the TOEFL® Internet-Based Test Across Subgroups
  By L. J. Stricker & D. A. Rock (2008)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-07
• Linking English-Language Test Scores Onto the Common European Framework of Reference: An Application of Standard-Setting Methodology
  By R. J. Tannenbaum & E. C. Wylie (2008)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-06
• The Impact of Changes in the TOEFL® Examination on Teaching and Learning in Central and Eastern Europe: Phase 2, Coping With Change
  By D. Wall & T. Horák (2008)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-05
• Factor Structure of the TOEFL® Internet-Based Test (iBT): Exploration in a Field Trial Sample
  By Y. Sawaki, L. J. Stricker, & A. Oranje (2008)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-04
• Investigating the Criterion-Related Validity of the TOEFL® Speaking Scores for ITA Screening and Setting Standards for ITAs
  By X. Xi (2008)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-03
• Toward an Understanding of the Role of Speech Recognition in Non-Native Speech Assessment
  By K. Zechner, I. I. Bejar & R. Hemat (2007)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-02
• Investigating the Utility of Analytic Scoring for the TOEFL® Academic Speaking Test (TAST)
  By X. Xi & P. Mollaun (2006)
  Report No. TOEFLiBT-01

Reports with designations that begin "TOEFL Research Report" refer to research conducted in support of the TOEFL test before its redesign as the TOEFL iBT. Reports are listed in reverse order of publication:

• Analytic Scoring of TOEFL® CBT Essays: Scores From Humans and E-rater®
  By Y.-W. Lee, C. Gentile, and R. Kantor (2008)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-81
• Mapping English Language Proficiency Test Scores Onto the Common European Framework
  By R. J. Tannenbaum and E. C. Wylie (2005)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-80
• Exploring Item Characteristics That Are Related to the Difficulty of TOEFL® Dialogue Items
  By I. Kostin (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-79
• Toward Accessible Computer-Based Tests: Prototypes for Visual and Other Disabilities
  By E.G. Hansen, D.C. Forer, and M.J. Lee (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-78
• Comparability of TOEFL® CBT Writing Prompts for Different Native Language Groups
  By Y. Lee, H. Breland, and E. Muraki (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-77
• An Analysis of TOEFL® CBT Writing Prompt Difficulty and Comparability for Different Gender Groups
  By H. Breland, Y. Lee, M. Najaran, and E. Muraki (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-76
• Comparability of TOEFL® CBT Writing Prompts: Response Mode Analyses
  By H. Breland, Y. Lee, and E. Muraki (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-75
• Elicited Speech From Graph Items on the Test of Spoken English™
  By I.R. Katz, X. Xi, H. Kim, and P.C. Cheng (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-74
• Beyond Essay Length: Evaluating e-rater®’s Performance on TOEFL® Essays
  By M. Chodorow and J. Burstein (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-73
• An Investigation of the Impact of Composition Medium on the Quality of TOEFL® Writing Scores
  By E.W. Wolfe and J.R. Manalo (2005)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-72
• Investigating the Validity of TOEFL: A Feasibility Study Using Content and Criterion-Related Strategies
  By M. Rosenfeld, P.K. Oltman, and K. Sheppard (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-71
• Exploring Variability in Judging Writing Ability in a Second Language: A Study of Four Experienced Raters of ESL Compositions
  By M.U. Erdosy (2004)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-70
• The Performance of Native Speakers of English and ESL Speakers on the Computer-Based TOEFL and GRE® General Test
  By L.J. Stricker (2002)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-69
• Influence of Irrelevant Speech on Standardized Test Performance
  By D.E. Powers, W. Albertson, T. Florek, K. Johnson, J. Malak, B. Nemceff, M. Porzuc, D. Silvester, M. Wang, R. Weston, E. Winner, and A. Zelazny (2002)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-68
• Automatic Assessment of Vocabulary Usage Without Negative Evidence
  By C. Leacock and M. Chodorow (2001)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-67
• Effects of the Presence and Absence of Visuals on Performance on TOEFL CBT Listening-Comprehensive Stimuli
  By A. Ginther (2001)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-66
• Monitoring Sources of Variability Within the Test of Spoken English™ Assessment System
  By C.M. Myford and E.W. Wolfe (2000)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-65
• Computer Analysis of the TOEFL Test of Written English™
  By L.T. Frase, J. Faletti, A. Ginther, and L. Grant (1999)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-64
• Validating the Revised Test of Spoken English Against a Criterion of Communicative Success
  By D.E. Powers, M.A. Schedl, S. Wilson-Leung, and F.A. Butler (1999)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-63
• Design and Evaluation of a Computer-Based TOEFL Tutorial
  By J. Jamieson, C. Taylor, I. Kirsch, and D. Eignor (1999)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-62
• The Relationship Between Computer Familiarity and Performance on Computer-Based TOEFL Test Tasks
  By C. Taylor, J. Jamieson, D. Eignor, and I. Kirsch (1998)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-61
• Development of a Scale for Assessing the Level of Computer Familiarity of TOEFL Examinees
  By D. Eignor, C. Taylor, I. Kirsch, and J. Jamieson (1998)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-60
• Computer Familiarity Among TOEFL Examinees
  By I. Kirsch, J. Jamieson, C. Taylor, and D. Eignor (1998)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-59
• Using Just Noticeable Differences to Interpret Test of Spoken English Scores
  By L.J. Stricker (1997)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-58
• Survey of Standards for Foreign Student Applicants
  By R.F. Boldt and R.G. Courtney (1997)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-57
• The Prediction of TOEFL Listening Comprehension Item Difficulty for Minitalk Passages: Implications for Construct Validity
  By R.O. Freedle and I.W. Kostin (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-56
• Adjustment for Reader Rating Behavior in the Test of Written English
  By N.T. Longford (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-55
• A Study of Writing Tasks Assigned in Academic Degree Programs
  By G.A. Hale, C. Taylor, B. Bridgeman, J. Carson, B. Kroll, and R. Kantor (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-54
• An Analysis of the Dimensionality of TOEFL Reading Comprehension Items
  By M.A. Schedl, A. Gordon, P.A. Carey, and K.L. Tang (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-53
• Reader Calibration and Its Potential Role in Equating for the Test of Written English
  By C.M. Myford, D. Marr, and J.M. Linacre (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-52
• An Analysis of Factors Affecting the Difficulty of Dialogue Items in TOEFL Listening Comprehension
  By S. Nissan, F. DeVincenzi, and K.L. Tang (1996)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-51
• A Comparison of the Performance of Graduate and Undergraduate School Applicants on the Test of Written English
  By R.J. Zwick and D.T. Thayer (1995)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-50
• A Study of Characteristics of the SPEAK® Test
  By S.M. Sarwark, J. Smith, R. MacCallum, and E. Cascallar (1995)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-49
• Analysis of Proposed Revisions of the Test of Spoken English
  By G. Henning, M.A. Schedl, and B.K. Suomi (1995)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-48
• An Investigation of Proposed Revisions to Section 3 of the TOEFL Test
  By M.A. Schedl, N. Thomas, and W.D. Way (1995)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-47
• Multimethod Construct Validation of the Test of Spoken English
  By R.F. Boldt and P.K. Oltman (1993)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-46
• Test-Retest Analyses of the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By G. Henning (1993)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-45
• The Prediction of TOEFL Reading Comprehension Item Difficulty for Expository Prose Passages for Three Item Types: Main Idea, Inference, and Supporting Idea Items
  By R.O. Freedle and I.W. Kostin (1993)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-44
• Uses of the Secondary Level English Proficiency (SLEP) Test: A Survey of Current Practice
  By K.M. Wilson (1993)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-43
• Topic and Topic Type Comparability on the Test of Written English
  By M.L. Golub-Smith, C.M. Reese, and K.S. Steinhaus (1993)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-42
• Distributions of ACTFL Ratings by TOEFL Score Ranges
  By R.F. Boldt, D. Larsen-Freeman, M.S. Reed, and R.G. Courtney (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-41
• Reliability of the Test of Spoken English Revisited
  By R.F. Boldt (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-40
• Effects of Amount of Time Allowed on the Test of Written English
  By G.A. Hale (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-39
• Scalar Analysis of the Test of Written English
  By G. Henning (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-38
• An Investigation of the Appropriateness of the TOEFL Test as a Matching Variable to Equate TWE Topics
  By G.E. DeMauro (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-37
• A Preliminary Study of the Nature of Communicative Competence
  By G. Henning and E. Cascallar (1992)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-36
• A Study of the Effects of Contextualization and Familiarization on Responses to the TOEFL Vocabulary Test Items
  By G. Henning (1991)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-35
• Note Taking and Listening Comprehension on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By G.A. Hale and R.G. Courtney (1991)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-34
• A Study of the Effects of Variation of Short-Term Memory Load, Reading Response Length, and Processing Hierarchy on TOEFL Listening Comprehension Item Performance
  By G. Henning (1991)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-33
• Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By G.A. Hale, D.A. Rock, and T.J. Jirele (1989)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-32
• The TOEFL Computerized Placement Test: Adaptive Conventional Measurement
  By M.M. Hicks (1989)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-31
• Accounting for Random Responding at the End of the Test in Assessing Speededness on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By C. Secolsky (1989)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-30
• Context Bias in the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By W.H. Angoff (1989)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-29
• Latent Structure Analysis of the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By R.F. Boldt (1988)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-28
• Native Language, English Proficiency, and the Structure of the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By P.K. Oltman, L.J. Stricker, and T.S. Barrows (1988)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-27
• Multiple-Choice Cloze Items and the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By G.A. Hale, C.W. Stansfield, D.A. Rock, M.M. Hicks, F.A. Butler, and J.W. Oller, Jr. (1988)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-26
• The Interaction of Student Major-Field Group and Text Content in TOEFL Reading Comprehension
  By G.A. Hale (1988)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-25
• A Study of the Effects of Item Option Rearrangement on the Listening Comprehension Section of the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By M.L. Golub-Smith (1987)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-24
• Development of Cloze-Elide Tests of English as a Second Language
  By W.H. Manning (1987)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-23
• Patterns of Test Taking and Score Change for Examinees Who Repeat the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By K.M. Wilson (1987)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-22
• Toward Communicative Competence Testing: Proceedings of the Second TOEFL Invitational Conference
  By C.W. Stansfield (1986)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-21
• A Survey of Academic Demands Related to Listening Skills
  By D.E. Powers (1985)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-20
• Relationship of Admission Test Scores to Writing Performance of Native and Nonnative Speakers of English
  By S.B. Carlson, B. Bridgeman, R. Camp, and J. Waanders (1985)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-19
• A Preliminary Study of Raters for the Test of Spoken English
  By I.I. Bejar (1985)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-18
• TOEFL from a Communicative Viewpoint on Language Proficiency: A Working Paper
  By R.P. Duran, M. Canale, J. Penfield, C.W. Stansfield, and J.E. Liskin-Gasparro (1985)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-17
• Summaries of Studies Involving the Test of English as a Foreign Language, 1963-1982
  By G.A. Hale, C.W. Stansfield, and R.P. Duran (1984)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-16
• Survey of Academic Writing Tasks Required of Graduate and Undergraduate Foreign Students
  By B. Bridgeman and S.B. Carlson (1983)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-15
• A Manual for Assessing Language Growth in Instructional Settings
  By S.S. Swinton (1983)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-14
• The Test of Spoken English as a Measure of Communicative Ability in the Health Professions: Validation and Standard Setting
  By D.E. Powers and C.W. Stansfield (1983)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-13
• GMAT and GRE Aptitude Test Performance in Relation to Primary Language and Scores on TOEFL
  By K.M. Wilson (1982)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-12
• A Comparative Analysis of TOEFL Examinee Characteristics, 1977–1979
  By K.M. Wilson (1982)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-11
• Language Proficiency as a Moderator Variable in Testing Academic Aptitude
  By D.L. Alderman (1981)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-10
• Item Performance Across Native Language Groups on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By D.L. Alderman and P.W. Holland (1981)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-09
• Effects of Item Disclosure on TOEFL Performance
  By P.J. Angelis, G.A. Hale, and L.A. Thibodeau (1980)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-08
• The Test of Spoken English as a Measure of Communicative Ability in English-Medium Instructional Settings
  By J.L.D. Clark and S.S. Swinton (1980)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-07
• Factor Analysis of the Test of English as a Foreign Language for Several Language Groups
  By D.E. Powers and S.S. Swinton (1980)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-06
• The Relationship Between Scores on the Graduate Management Admission Test and the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By D.E. Powers (1980)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-05
• An Exploration of Speaking Proficiency Measures in the TOEFL Context
  By J.L.D. Clark and S.S. Swinton (1979)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-04
• The Performance of Non-Native Speakers of English on TOEFL and Verbal Aptitude Tests
  By P.J. Angelis, S.S. Swinton, and W.R. Cowell (1979)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-03
• An Evaluation of Alternative Item Formats for Testing English as a Foreign Language
  By L.W. Pike (1979)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-02
• The Performance of Native Speakers of English on the Test of English as a Foreign Language
  By J.L.D. Clark (1977)
  TOEFL Research Report No. RR-01